The architectural design process is widely recognized as a complex, open-ended, and ill-structured activity that requires students to engage in multifaceted cognitive, analytical, and creative problem-solving strategies. Unlike well-defined problems that have clear solutions and step-by-step procedures, architectural design problems often present conflicting requirements, multiple constraints, and ambiguous objectives. Consequently, students need to develop skills that go beyond intuition, prior experience, or reliance on traditional design patterns. These skills include the systematic identification of contradictions, creative generation of alternative solutions, critical evaluation of assumptions, and reflective decision-making throughout the design process. Traditional architectural education frequently emphasizes intuitive approaches, precedent-based solutions, and instructor-guided outcomes, which may not adequately cultivate the higher-order cognitive skills necessary to navigate the complexity of real-world design challenges.

To address this educational gap, the present study investigated the effectiveness of two pedagogical approaches—TRIZ methodology and critical thinking strategies—compared to conventional teaching methods in enhancing the problem-solving abilities of undergraduate architecture students enrolled in the “Design Studio 1” course. TRIZ, originally developed as a systematic problem-solving methodology in engineering contexts, provides a structured framework for identifying contradictions within complex problems and generating inventive, novel solutions. Critical thinking approaches, on the other hand, emphasize analytical reasoning, hypothesis evaluation, reflective inquiry, and structured questioning to facilitate deeper understanding and informed decision-making in complex situations. By integrating these approaches into architectural design education, this research sought to determine how each method contributes to students’ abilities to address the inherent challenges of open-ended design problems.

A quasi-experimental research design was implemented, involving three groups of ten students each. The first group participated in a TRIZ-based instructional intervention, which guided students in systematically analyzing design contradictions, applying inventive principles, and iteratively developing creative solutions. The second group received instruction based on critical thinking strategies, including structured exercises for hypothesis analysis, argument evaluation, questioning of assumptions, and reflective assessment of design decisions. The third group, serving as a control, followed the traditional studio curriculum, which focused on instructor-led guidance, precedent study, and conventional design exercises without specialized intervention. The interventions were conducted over a 16-week period, corresponding to the standard duration of the “Design Studio 1” course, and were integrated into regular studio sessions. During this time, all groups engaged in parallel design projects, receiving guidance appropriate to their assigned pedagogical approach, with a focus on cultivating problem-solving skills, creativity, and analytical reasoning.

To measure the effectiveness of the interventions, a set of evaluation criteria was developed based on the Delphi method and weighted using the Analytic Network Process (ANP). The Delphi process involved a panel of twenty experts in architectural education, design thinking, and problem-solving methodology, selected through a snowball sampling technique to ensure representation of diverse perspectives and professional expertise. Over multiple rounds, the experts identified key problem-solving competencies relevant to architectural design, including the recognition and resolution of contradictions, creativity and originality in solution generation, critical analysis of assumptions, and reflective inquiry in the design process. Following the Delphi rounds, the identified criteria were weighted using ANP, which accounts for interdependencies among criteria and provides a systematic method for assigning relative importance to each factor. This process resulted in a validated, structured framework for assessing students’ design performance across multiple dimensions of problem-solving and critical reasoning.

All final design projects were evaluated using a checklist derived from the Delphi-ANP framework, ensuring that assessment was standardized, objective, and aligned with the research objectives. The checklist included multiple indicators: the ability to identify design contradictions, originality and inventiveness of solutions, analytical depth, coherence of design reasoning, and evidence of reflective and critical inquiry. Quantitative data from the scoring process were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) to detect statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of problem-solving performance. Complementing the quantitative analysis, qualitative data were gathered through systematic observation of 32 studio sessions, documenting student behaviors, interactions, strategies, and approaches to problem-solving. Thematic analysis of these observations enabled identification of distinct behavioral patterns associated with each instructional approach, providing a richer understanding of how students engaged with complex design tasks in practice.

The results indicated that the TRIZ group demonstrated notable strengths in identifying contradictions inherent in design problems and generating creative, systematic, and innovative solutions. Students in this group consistently applied inventive principles to resolve conflicting requirements and iteratively refined their design concepts to achieve novel outcomes. The critical thinking group, in contrast, showed superior performance in analyzing design assumptions, evaluating multiple hypotheses, engaging in structured questioning, and reflecting critically on their design decisions. Both approaches led to measurable improvements in problem-solving skills compared to the control group, which exhibited reliance on intuitive judgment, precedent-based strategies, and conventional problem-solving approaches, with less evidence of systematic analysis or inventive reasoning.

Thematic analysis of the qualitative data further supported these findings. In the TRIZ group, students frequently employed structured contradiction analysis, applied inventive principles in an iterative manner, and documented solution pathways systematically. Critical thinking students demonstrated reflective evaluation of assumptions, iterative questioning, and analytical reasoning in group discussions and studio critiques. The control group’s behaviors were characterized by conventional strategies, including copying prior examples, limited iteration, and reliance on instructor guidance. These observations confirm that pedagogical interventions significantly influenced students’ approaches to problem-solving and creative design.

Overall, the study demonstrated that both TRIZ and critical thinking interventions are effective for enhancing problem-solving skills in architectural education, though through complementary mechanisms. TRIZ supports the systematic identification of design contradictions and structured creative solution generation, whereas critical thinking promotes reflective analysis, hypothesis evaluation, and rigorous inquiry. The findings suggest that integrating elements of both methodologies within architectural studio curricula could offer a comprehensive approach to fostering versatile, adaptive, and analytically capable designers.

The implications of these results for architectural education are significant. First, the study highlights the limitations of traditional, intuition-based design instruction and emphasizes the need for evidence-based pedagogical strategies that actively cultivate higher-order cognitive skills, structured problem-solving, and creative thinking. Second, the successful adaptation of TRIZ and critical thinking approaches demonstrates their applicability in architecture, extending methodologies originally developed in engineering and philosophy to the context of design education. Third, understanding the distinct behavioral patterns associated with each approach can guide educators in tailoring studio activities to reinforce desired problem-solving and creative behaviors, thereby enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.

In addition, the study underscores the importance of rigorous evaluation frameworks that combine expert-validated criteria with both quantitative and qualitative analyses. Such frameworks provide robust evidence of pedagogical effectiveness, ensuring that educational interventions are assessed systematically and comprehensively. By documenting the contributions of TRIZ and critical thinking interventions, this study contributes to the broader discourse on evidence-based design education and supports the development of innovative, research-informed instructional strategies in architecture.

In conclusion, the research establishes that both TRIZ and critical thinking approaches significantly improve problem-solving skills in architectural design education. TRIZ facilitates systematic contradiction analysis and creative solution development, while critical thinking enhances reflective reasoning, analytical inquiry, and evaluative thinking. The findings highlight the potential for integrating these methodologies into studio curricula to cultivate comprehensive problem-solving abilities, preparing students for the increasingly complex and dynamic demands of professional architectural practice. By demonstrating measurable improvements in student performance and documenting distinct behavioral patterns associated with each approach, this study provides a valuable model for curriculum development, pedagogical innovation, and assessment practices in architectural education globally.

Keywords: Architectural design process, TRIZ, Critical thinking, Architectural education, Problem-solving